The Christian Ethics of Machiavelli - Literature Essay Samples

In The Prince, Niccolà ² Machiavelli, the author, generally lays forth a system of ethics for rulers. Given the strength of Christianity at the time that he wrote this work, Machiavellis instructions to aspiring rulers are surprising. His definition of goodness, or virtue, seems to stray far from traditional Christian teachings. In his Summa Theologica II, for instance, Thomas Aquinas directly contradicts some of Machiavellis claims. Interestingly, however, Saint Augustine, author of The City of God, agrees with some of Machiavellis code of ethics.First, what is Machiavellis code of ethics for rulers? He speaks for the most part on three personality characteristics: generosity, compassion, and integrity. On all three he takes what seems at first glance to be a non-Christian stance.With regard to generosity, Machiavelli claims that it is best to be considered generous, but that it is dangerous to actually be generous. His case is simple:a ruler who pursues a reputation for gen erosity will always end up wasting all his resources; and he will be obliged in the end, if he wants to preserve his reputation, to impose crushing taxes upon the people, to pursue every possible source of income, and to be preoccupied with maximizing his revenues. This will begin to make him hateful to his subjects, and will ensure no one thinks well of him, for no one admires poverty (The Prince, 49).When a ruler commits himself to spending income generously, Machiavelli argues, he also commits himself to creating new or enforcing old forms of revenue collecting. Machiavelli also argues that any positive reaction to the generosity will be far outweighed by the overwhelming negative response to harsh revenue collection. Hidden in this explanation of the dangers of generosity is a strangely perverted Christian idea: that of doing the greatest good to the greatest number of people, or utilitarianism. When a ruler is parsimonious instead of generous, Machiavelli states, he will be thought to be generous towards all those whose income he does not tax, which is almost everybody, and stingy towards those who miss out on handouts, who are only a few (The Prince, 49).Machiavelli has a similar opinion on rulers being compassionate. He argues that compassion is also a danger to a ruler and that it is much safer to be feared than loved (The Prince, 51). In regard to this characteristic, it is only good to be viewed as cruel rather than compassionate in one instance: when a ruler is addressing an army:When a ruler is at the head of his army and has a vast number of soldiers under his command, then it is absolutely essential to be prepared to be thought cruel; for it is impossible to keep an army united and ready for action without acquiring a reputation for cruelty (The Prince, 52).Troops will only stay committed to the causes of the ruler if they fear him and he appears cruel to them. In that case alone, it is best to be perceived as not compassionate; to the res t of society, though, an outward faà §ade of compassion is necessary. Once again, Machiavelli uses the basic principle of utilitarianism to support his argument. It is best to be viewed as compassionate and actually act cruelly, for it is more compassionate to impose harsh punishments on a few than, out of excessive compassion, to allow disorder to spread, which leads to murders or looting (The Prince, 51).Finally, and more briefly, Machiavelli discusses integrity and honesty. He makes a similar argument, contending that it is best to appear honest while actually keeping ones word only when absolutely necessary. A ruler should not keep his word when doing so is to his disadvantage, and when the reasons that led him to promise to do so no longer apply (The Prince, 54). In this, though, there is no pretense of utilitarianism‹Machiavelli makes a purely selfish argument for dishonesty.Thomas Aquinas, in his Summa Theologica II, makes no direct contradictions to Machiavellis as sumptions on honesty or compassion, but instead attacks all three through a study of the Christian principle of charity. Charity, defined as mans love of God and his neighbor (Oxford English Dictionary, charity), is a theological and divine virtue, according to Aquinas, and should therefore be practiced above all else. Charity, in a Christian sense, means less formally to treat others with respect, love, and kindness at all times. Therefore, Aquinas condemns Machiavellis conceptions of generosity, compassion, and honesty with one fell swoop. Because charity is to be practiced above all else, one should not be cruel or dishonest to ones neighbor. Also, Aquinas contends, generosity is a virtue, not something to be despised the way Machiavelli declares‹man was commanded by God to perform charity, and thus, generosity, before anything else.Saint Augustine, however, disagrees with Aquinas argument. Through convoluted language, Augustine explains that charity, more than anything else, is treating ones neighbor as ones self. Because of this, charity cannot ever really be practiced‹it is both selfish and altruistic at the same time:they do not perform charitable actions even when they think they are doing so. For if they gave bread to a hungering Christian because he is a Christian, assuredly they would not deny to themselves the bread of righteousness, that is, Christ Himself; for God considers not the person to whom the gift is made, but the spirit in which it is made (The City of God, 806).As a result, if a truly selfless act of charity can never be performed, perhaps Machiavelli is simply performing another patently Christian act: treating others as he would have them treat him.The Machiavellian ruler, therefore, may actually be Christian in his moral beliefs. For the ruler never commits any act which he would not have performed on him; when he lies to the public, he would expect another ruler to lie to him as a member of that public. Maybe the M achiavellian ruler simply loves his neighbor as himself. Despite all appearances, Machiavellis principles, as laid out in The Prince may be Christian.

Compare Macbeth to a Film Adaptation - 1038 Words

In William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Macbeth† the audience witness’s one man’s overriding ambitions to his iconic fall. Shakespeare makes a point of showing the deterioration of the Macbeth that entered the stage in Act 1 and the Macbeth that dies in act 7, showing that even the deep morality and honesty of a man like a man can worsen into a man who is willing to kill his own King – a deadly sin in Shakespeare’s 17th century. Throughout my piece I shall make unifying links between the adaptation directed by Mark Brozel and the original text wrote by none other than Shakespeare. For the period of Act 1, Scene 2, Macbeth is hailed as the very heroic and brave â€Å"Worthy gentleman!† who â€Å"carved out his passage Till he faced the slave;† this suggests†¦show more content†¦In the play Macbeth seems to be in awe of King Duncan, Macbeth feels any work done on the request of or for Duncan is not work at all, but duty, Macbeth admires Duncan as a King and respects him as I quote â€Å"The service and the loyalty I owe In doing it pays itself. Your highness part Is to receive our duties, and our duties Are to your throne and state children and servant† (Act 1, Scene 4) Macbeth and Duncan have a respected relationship, one where they are grateful of each other and admire one another in the first Act, this makes the murder of Duncan even harder and that’s why he chooses to murder Duncan at night. His hand can commit the murder without his eye having to witness it. Somehow this will make the guilt and betrayal less. Macbeth ch anges throughout as his character develops, in comparison to the relationship between Duncan and Macbeth in the film adaptation is to a certain extent, unalike. When asked about a recipe of Duncan’s Macbeth replies with a jealous voice â€Å"yes, that’s mine† the relationship between Duncan and Joe Macbeth is strained. Joe knows he is the reason the restaurant is so successful and it pains him toShow MoreRelatedMacbeth by William Shakespeare1154 Words   |  5 PagesMacbeth is a play written by Shakespeare in the 1603; it is based on themes of ambition, power and authority. Macbeth is a tragic hero who becomes ‘Thane of Cawdor’ and meets three witches that predict he will become a king, which leads him to commit the regicide. Rupert Goold and many other directors have altered and interpreted Macbeth in many ways. In this essay I will compare and contrast the ways in which Lady Macbeth is presented in the original play and Gold’s 2010 film ad aptation. 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Essay about War in Christianity and Islam - 629 Words

War in Christianity and Islam Does such a combination of words as a war in the name of God make sense? The main principles, which underlie Christianity and Islam, are those of goodness, kindness, lack of aggression and respecting certain moral laws. Christianity and Islam provide human society with a code of ethics, which totally rejects war because it is something violent, inhumane and cruel. Still, over the course of human history many wars have been justified with religion and with imposing the right faith. Because of misunderstanding of certain parts of religion or deliberate misuse of it European and Islamic states have often used violence to fulfill their goals. Through the years the idea that Islam is an aggressive†¦show more content†¦This is a sad example of how such a supreme and spiritual concept as the religion can be turned into a weapon for destruction. All this should not make us consider Islam a violent religion because its nature calls for love, not for war. Certain concepts and ideas are misinterpreted and as religion traditionally has strong influence over Muslims many people get a wrong impression of the essence of Islamic religion. On the other hand, Christianity has been generally considered as a very peaceful religion. Indeed, it really promotes supreme moral values and ethical behavior. Let us not forget what Jesus told to his followers: if any one strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also. However, this was not the case for Christian Europe in the Middle Ages and even later. Leaders often justified their cruel conquests with religion and the will of God. The most striking example is that of the Crusades. For many years they served as an emblem of the power of Christianity and the desire to make the world Christian. Christian forces killed people and destroyed villages to bring enlightenment to these lands. They did just what Jesus taught his disciples not to do. 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Theories of Health and Illness free essay sample

One can define health negatively, as the absence of illness ,or positively as fitness and well-being. Health also implies good prospects for continued survival. According to the World Health Organization ,health Is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.The definition of health varies in various Institutes such as the National Wellness Institute which defines health as an active process of becoming aware of and making choices toward a more successful existence. Whereas for the Alliance Institute for Integrative Medicine views health as such more than just a state of physical health but also encompasses emotional stability, clear thinking, the ability to love,create,embrace change, exercise intuition and experience a continuing sense of spirituality.According to the Arizona State university (ASS) ,health is an active ,lifelong process of becoming aware of choices and making decisions toward a more balanced and fulfilling life while Webster 1913 Dictionary of Health defines it as a state of being hale,sound,or whole in body,mind,or OLL; especially ,the state being of being free from physical disease or pain. We will write a custom essay sample on Theories of Health and Illness or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In conclusion, In the new global health policy, the role of WHO Is made explicit.WHO, as a representative body of Its 191 Members States throughout the world, recognizes that It has a unique mandate and responsibility to gulled all partners Involved In global governance of health towards the attainment of health for all. It will do so by promoting international collective action that benefits all countries, and by espousing to global threats to health.Furthermore, it will provide technical cooperation to support health development in countries and to protect the health of vulnerable and poor communities and countries. In doing so, WHO, which consists of all of us, hopes that by the sass we will have made substantially more progress in attaining the fullest definition of health for all as understood by the Constitution and through the words of the new policy, Health for All in the 21 SST Century.